Journal of Urban Environmental Management

A Review on Biodegradable Plastic Production from Microalgae

Authors

Behnam feyzi 1
Roudabeh Samiee-Zafarghandi 2
Maryam Pazoki 2
Hosein Abolghasemi 3

1 Center for Separation Processes Modeling and Nano-Computations, School of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran,, Tehran, Iran

2 Department of Environmental Engineering, Graduate Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran

3 Center for Separation Processes Modeling and Nano-Computations, School of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, P.O. Box 11365-4563, Tehran, Iran

https://doi.org/10.48306/juem.2025.515604.1071
Abstract
The increasing plastic pollution and the continous dependence on fossil resources have highlighted the urgent need for the development and utilization of biodegradable plastics. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are promising polymers that have attracted considerable attention due to their complete biodegradability, biocompatibility, and physical properties comparable to those of conventional petrochemical based polymers such as polyethylene. These biopolymers are synthesized and accumulated as intracellular energy and carbon storage in certain groups of microorganisms and accumulate in the cytoplasm. Microalgae, which utilize sunlight as their primary energy source and require minimal nutrients for growth, have attracted attention for PHA production due to their adaptability to cultivation conditions, independence from seasonal variations, rapid growth rates. This article provides a comprehensive review of bioplastics, the conditions and metabolic pathways involved in PHA storage in microalgal cells, as well as the properties and applications of these biodegradable polymers produced by microalgae. The study also addresses commercialization, recent advancements, and associated challenges. Findings indicate that nutrient limitation significantly enhances the biopolymer accumulation in many microalgal species. Moreover, selecting appropriate microalgal strains has been shown to increase biopolymer yields as much as 70% of the dry biomass weight. The high potential of microalgae in producing biodegradable polymers could have a substantial impact on reducing environmental pollution and achieving sustainable development. Although commercial production of PHAs from microalgae still faces certain limitations, projections suggest that PHAs could account for up to 33% of the global polymer market in the future.

Keywords

Biodegradable plastic
Microalgae
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
Biorefinery
1.Sudhakar, M.P., Maurya, R., Mehariya, S., Karthikeyan, O.P., Dharani, G., Arunkumar, K., Pereda, S.V., Hernández-González, M.C., Buschmann, A.H. and Pugazhendhi, A. (2024). Feasibility of bioplastic production using micro- and macroalgae: A review. Environmental Research, 240, 117465. DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.117465
2. Dang, B.T., Bui, X.T., Tran, D.P., Ngo, H.H., Nghiem, L.D., Hoang, T.K.D., Nguyen, P.T., Nguyen, H.H., Vo, T.K.Q., Lin, C. and Lin, K.Y.A. (2022). Current application of algae derivatives for bioplastic production: A review. Bioresource Technology, 347, 126698. DOI:10.1016/j.biortech.2022.126698
3. Costa, S.S., Miranda, A.L., de Morais, M.G., Costa, J.A.V. and Druzian, J.I. (2019). Microalgae as source of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)—A review. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 131, 536-547. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.03.099
4. Anjum, A., Zuber, M., Zia, K.M., Norren, A., Anjum, M.N. and Tabasum, S. (2016). Microbial production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and its copolymers: A review of recent advancements. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 89, 161-174. DOI:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.04.069
5. Getachew, A. and Woldesenbet, F. (2016). Production of biodegradable plastic by polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) accumulating bacteria using low cost agricultural waste material. BMC Research Notes, 9, 509. DOI: 10.1186/s13104-016-2321-y
6. Singh, A.K., Sharma, L., Mallick, N. and Mala, J. (2017). Progress and challenges in producing polyhydroxyalkanoate biopolymers from cyanobacteria. Journal of Applied Phycology, 29, 1213-1232. DOI: 10.1007/s10811-016-1006-1
7. Choi, H.I., Sung, Y.J., Hong, M.E., Han, J., Min, B.K. and Sim, S.J. (2022). Reconsidering the potential of direct microalgal biomass utilization as end-products: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 155, 111930. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2021.111930
8. Troschl, C., Meixner, K. and Drosg, B. (2017). Cyanobacterial PHA production—Review of recent advances and a summary of three years' working experience running a pilot plant. Bioengineering, 4, 26-45. DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering4020026
9. Balaji, S., Gopi, K. and Muthuvelan, B. (2013). A review on production of poly β hydroxybutyrates from cyanobacteria for the production of bio plastics. Algal Research, 2(3), 278-285. DOI:10.1016/j.algal.2013.03.002
10. Rueda, E., Álvarez-González, A., Vila, J., Díez-Montero, R., Grifoll, M. and García, J. (2022). Inorganic carbon stimulates the metabolic routes related to the polyhydroxybutyrate production in a Synechocystis sp. strain (cyanobacteria) isolated from wastewater. Science of the Total Environment, 829, 154691. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154691
11. Singh, J. and Gu, S. (2010). Commercialization potential of microalgae for biofuels production. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 14(9), 2596-2610. DOI:10.1016/j.ejpe.2012.07.001
12. Bahadar, A. and Bilal Khan, M. (2013). Progress in energy from microalgae: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 27, 128-148. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2013.06.029
13. Lopez Barreiro, D., Prins, W., Ronsse, F. and Brilman, W. (2013). Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) of microalgae for biofuel production: State of the art review and future prospects. Biomass and Bioenergy, 53, 113-127. DOI: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2012.12.029
14. Amin, S. (2009). Review on biofuel oil and gas production processes from microalgae. Energy Conversion and Management, 50(7), 1834-1840. DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2009.03.001
15. Onen Cinar, S., Chong, Z.K., Kucuker, M.A., Wieczorek, N., Cengiz, U. and Kuchta, K. (2020). Bioplastic Production from Microalgae: A Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, 3842. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17113842
16. Simonazzi, M., Pezzolesi, L., Galletti, P., Gualandi, C., Pistocchi, R., De Marco, N., Paganelli, Z. and Samorì, C. (2021). Production of polyhydroxybutyrate by the cyanobacterium cf. Anabaena sp. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 191, 92-99. DOI:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.09.054
17. Costa, S.S., Miranda, A.L., Andrade, B.B., de Jesus Assis, D., Souza, C.O., de Morais, M.G.,Costa, J.A.V. and Druzian, J.I. (2018). Influence of nitrogen on growth, biomass composition, production, and properties of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) by microalgae. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 116, 552-562. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.05.064
18. Rajpoot, A.S., Choudhary, T., Chelladurai, H., Verma, T.N. and Shende, V. (2022). A comprehensive review on bioplastic production from microalgae. Materials Today: Proceedings, 56, 171-178. DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2022.01.060
19. Emadian, S.M., Onay, T.T. and Demirel, B. (2017). Biodegradation of bioplastics in natural environments. Waste Management, 59, 526–536. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2016.10.006
20. Mastropetros, S.G., Pispas, K., Zagklis, D., Ali, S.S. and Kornaros, M. (2022). Biopolymers production from microalgae and cyanobacteria cultivated in wastewater: Recent advances. Biotechnology Advances, 60, 107999. DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2022.107999
21. Coppola, G., Gaudio, M.T., Lopresto, C.G., Calabro, V., Curcio, S. and Chakraborty, S. (2021). Bioplastic from renewable biomass: A facile solution for a greener environment. Earth Systems and Environment, 5, Article 2021. DOI: 10.1007/s41748-021-00208-7
22. López-Pacheco, I.Y., Rodas-Zuluaga, L.I., Cuellar-Bermudez, S.P., Hidalgo-Vázquez, E., Molina-Vazquez, A., Araújo, R.G., Martínez-Ruiz, M., Varjani, S., Barceló, D. and Iqbal, H.M.N. (2022). Revalorization of Microalgae Biomass for Synergistic Interaction and Sustainable Applications: Bioplastic Generation. Marine Drugs 20, 601. DOI: 10.3390/md20100601
23. Osman, A.M., Abdurahman, N.H. and Noormazlinah, A., (2023). A Review Study on the Potential of Microalgae Biomass Producing Biopolymer Material. Current Science and Technology (CST), 2(2), 48-54. DOI: 10.15282/cst.v2i2.9413
24. Tan, G.-Y. A., Chen, C.-L., Li, L., Ge, L., Wang, L., Razaad, I. M.N., Li, Y., Zhao, L., Mo, Y. and Wang, J.-Y. (2014). Start a Research on Biopolymer Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA): A Review. Polymers, 6(3), 706-754. DOI: 10.3390/polym6030706
25. Chong, J.W.R., Yew, G.Y., Khoo, K.S., Ho, S.H. and Show, P.L. (2021). Recent advances on food waste pretreatment technology via microalgae for source of polyhydroxyalkanoates. Journal of Environmental Management, 293, 112782. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112782
26. Koch, M. and Forchhammer, K., (2021). Polyhydroxybutyrate: A Useful Product of Chlorotic Cyanobacteria. Microbial Physiology 31(2), 67-77. DOI: 10.1159/000515617
27. Kartik, A., Akhil, D., Lakshmi, D., Gopinath, K.P., Arun, J., Sivaramakrishnan, R. and Pugazhendhi, A. (2021). A critical review on production of biopolymers from algae biomass and their applications. Bioresource Technology 329, 124868. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.124868
28. Sudesh, K., Taguchi, K. and Doi, Y. (2002). Effect of increased PHA synthase activity on polyhydroxyalkanoates biosynthesis in Synechocystis sp. PCC6803. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 30(2), 97-104. DOI: 10.1016/s0141-8130(02)00010-7
29. Grage, K., Jahns, A.C., Parlane, N., Palanisamy, R., Rasiah, I.A., Atwood, J.A. and Rehm, B.H.A. (2009). Bacterial polyhydroxyalkanoate granules: biogenesis, structure, and potential use as nano-/micro-beads in biotechnological and biomedical applications. Biomacromolecules, 10, 660-669. DOI: 10.1021/bm801394s
30. Meixner, K., Kovalick, A., Sykaceka, E., Gruber-Brunhumera, M., Zeilingera, W., Markl, K., Haas, C., Fritza, I., Mundiglera, N., Stelzera, F., Neureitera, M., Fuchsa, W. and Drosga, B. (2018). Cyanobacteria biorefinery – production of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) with Synechocystis salina and utilisation of residual biomass. Journal of Biotechnology, 265, 46-53. DOI:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2017.10.020
31. Madadi, R., Maljaee, H., Serafim, L.S. and Ventura, S.P.M., (2021). Microalgae as Contributors to Produce Biopolymers. Marine Drugs 19, 466. DOI: 10.3390/md19080466
32. Raza, Z. A., Abid, S. and Banat, I. M. (2018). Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Characteristics, production, recent developments and applications. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 126, 45-56. DOI: 10.1016/j.ibiod.2017.10.001
33. Bugnicourt, E., Cinelli, P., Lazzeri, A. and Alvarez, V. (2014). Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA): Review of synthesis, characteristics, processing and potential applications in packaging. eXPRESS Polymer Letters, 8(11), 791-808. DOI: 10.3144/expresspolymlett.2014.82
34. Ranganadhareddy, A. (2022). Microalgae as a Source of Biopolymer - A Comprehensive Review. Journal of Biochemical Technology 13(2), 40-45. DOI: 10.51847/dTb7rBmjNO
35. Butt, F. I., Muhammad, N., Hamid, A., Moniruzzaman, M. and Sharif, F. (2018). Recent progress in the utilization of biosynthesized polyhydroxyalkanoates for biomedical applications - Review. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 120, 1294-1305. DOI:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.09.002
36. Carpine, R. (2020). Cyanobacteria for PHB production. Master’s thesis, University of Naples, Italy.
37. Kapritchkoff, F.M., Viotti, A.P., Alli, R.C.P., Zuccolo, M., Pradella, J.G.C., Maiorano, E.A., Miranda, E.A. and Bonomi, A. (2006). Enzymatic recovery and purification of polyhydroxybutyrate produced by Ralstonia eutropha. Journal of Biotechnology, 122, 453-462. DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2005.09.009
38. Madkour, M.H., Heinrich, D., Alghamdi, M.A., Shabbaj, I.I., & Steinbuchel, A. (2013). PHA recovery from biomass. Biomacromolecules, 14, 2963-2972. DOI: 10.1021/bm4010244
39. Costa, S.S., Miranda, A.L., Assis, D.J., Souza, C.O., Morais, M.G., Costa, J.A.V. and Druzian, J.I. (2018). Efficacy of Spirulina sp. polyhydroxyalkanoates extraction methods and influence on polymer properties and composition. Algal Research, 33, 231-238. DOI:10.1016/j.algal.2018.05.016
40. Fiorese, M.L., Freitas, F., Pais, J., Ramos, A.M., Aragão, G.M.F. and Reis, M.A.M. (2009). Recovery of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) from Cupriavidus necator biomass by solvent extraction with 1,2-propylene carbonate. Engineering in Life Sciences, 9, 454-461. DOI:10.1002/elsc.200900034
41. Riedel, S.L., Brigham, C.J., Budde, C.F., Bader, J., Rha, C., Stahl, U. and Sinskey, A.J. (2012). Recovery of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) from Ralstonia eutropha cultures with non-halogenated solvents. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 110, 461-470. DOI:10.1002/bit.24713
42. Madigan, M.T., Bender, K.S., Buckley, D.H., Sattley, W.M. and Stahl, D.A. (2020). Brock Biology of Microorganisms. 15th Edition, Pearson Education, 1096 pages.
43. Mendhulkar, V. and Shetye, L. (2017). Synthesis of biodegradable polymer polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) in cyanobacteria Synechococcus elongates under Mixotrophic nitrogen- and phosphate-mediated stress conditions. Industrial Biotechnology, 13, 85-88. DOI: 10.1089/ind.2016.0021
44. Chong, J.W.R., Khoo, K.S., Yew, G.Y., Leong, W.H., Lim, J.W., Lam, M.K., Ho, Y.C., Ng, H.S., Munawaroh, H.S.H. and Show, P.L (2021). Advances in production of bioplastics by microalgae using food waste hydrolysate and wastewater: A review. Bioresource Technology, 342, 125947. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125947
45. Richmond, A. and Hu, Q. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of Microalgal Culture: Applied Phycology and Biotechnology. John Wiley & Sons.
46. Markou, G. and Nerantzis, E. (2013). Microalgae for high-value compounds and biofuels production: A review with focus on cultivation under stress conditions. Biotechnology Advances, 31(8), 1532-1542. DOI:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.07.011
47. Markou, G., Vandame, D. and Muylaert, K. (2014). Microalgal and cyanobacterial cultivation: The supply of nutrients. Water Research, 65, 186-202. DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.07.025
48. Lamers, P.P., van de Laak, C.C.W., Kaasenbrood, P.S., Lorier, J., Janssen, M., De Vos, R.C.H. and Wijffels, R.H. (2010). Carotenoid and fatty acid metabolism in light-stressed Dunaliella salina. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 106(4), 638-648. DOI: 10.1002/bit.22725
49. Razzak, S.A., Hossain, M.M., Lucky, R.A., Bassi, A.S. and de Lasa, H. (2017). Integrated CO2 capture, wastewater treatment and biofuel production by microalgae culturing—A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 27, 622-653. DOI:10.1016/j.rser.2013.05.063
50. Chen, B., Wan, C., Mehmood, M.A., Chang, J., Bai, F. and Zhao, X. (2017). Manipulating environmental stresses and stress tolerance of microalgae for enhanced production of lipids and value-added products – A review. Bioresource Technology, 244, 1198-1206. DOI:10.1016/j.biortech.2017.05.170
51. Gonçalves, A.L., Pires, J.C.M. and Simões, M. (2017). A review on the use of microalgal consortia for wastewater treatment. Algal Research, 24, 403-415. DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2016.11.008
52. Tamandani, Y.K., Norastehnia, A. and Moradi, F. (2020). Production of polyhydroxybutyrate by cyanobacteria Spirulina sp. under concentrations of mineral salts stress. Aquatic Physiology and Biotechnology, 8(1), Spring 2020.
53. Shrivastav, A., Mishra, S.K. and Mishra, S. (2010). Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) synthesis by Spirulina subsalsa from Gujarat coast of India. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 46(2), 255-260. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2010.01.001
54. Barone, G.D., Ferizovic, D., Biundo, A. and Lindblad, P. (2020). Hints at the applicability of microalgae and cyanobacteria for the biodegradation of plastics. Sustainability, 12, 10449. DOI:10.3390/su122410449
55. Sharma, L. and Mallick, N. (2005). Accumulation of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate in Nostoc muscorum: Regulation by pH, light–dark cycles, N and P status and carbon sources. Bioresource Technology, 96(11), 1304-1310. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2004.10.009
56. Coelho, V.C., da Silva, C.K., Terra, A.L., Costa, J.A.V. and de Morais, M.G. (2015). Polyhydroxybutyrate production by Spirulina sp. LEB 18 grown under different nutrient concentrations. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 9(24), 1586-1594. DOI:10.5897/AJMR2015.7530
57. Palash, A., Salehi, Z., Tavakoli, O. and Amoozgar, M.A. (2018). Investigation of polyhydroxyalkanoate bioplastic production in bacteria. Master’s thesis, University of Tehran.
58. Gradíssimo, D. G., Xavier, L. P. and Santos, A. V. (2020). Cyanobacterial polyhydroxyalkanoates: A sustainable alternative in circular economy. Molecules, 25(18), 4331. DOI: 10.3390/molecules25184331
59. Carr, N.G. (1966). The occurrence of poly-p-hydroxybutyrate in the blue-green alga, Chlorogloea fritschii. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 120, 308-310. DOI: 10.1128/jb.172.5.2791-2792.1990
60. Jensen, T.E. and Sicko, L.M. (1971). Fine structure of poly-β-hydroxybutyric acid granules in a blue-green alga, Chlorogloea fritschii. Journal of Bacteriology, 106, 683-686. DOI:10.1128/jb.106.2.683-686.1971
61. Asada, Y., Miyake, M., Miyake, J., Kurane, R. and Tokiwa, Y. (1999). Photosynthetic accumulation of polyhydroxybutyrate by cyanobacteria—the metabolism and potential for CO₂ recycling. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 25(1–3), 37-42. DOI:10.1016/S0141-8130(99)00013-6
62. Gerde, J.A., Yao, L. and Lio, J. (2014). Microalgae flocculation: Impact of flocculant type, algae species and cell concentration. Algal Research, 3, 30-35. DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2013.11.015
63. Wu, G.F., Wu, Q.Y. and Shen, Z.Y. (2001). Accumulation of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate in cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC6803. Bioresource technology, 76(2), 85-90. DOI: 10.1016/S0960-8524(00)00099-7
64. Bhati, R. and Mallick, N. (2015). Poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) copolymer production by the diazotrophic cyanobacterium Nostoc muscorum Agardh: Process optimization and polymer characterization. Algal Research, 7, 78-85. DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2014.12.003 https://irost.org.
65. Carpine, R., Olivieri, G., Hellingwerf, K.J., Pollio, A. and Marzocchella, A. (2020). Industrial production of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate from CO2: Can cyanobacteria meet this challenge? Processes, 8, 323. DOI: 10.3390/pr8030323
66. Panda, B., Jain, P., Sharma, L. and Mallick, N. (2006). Optimization of cultural and nutritional conditions for accumulation of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Bioresource Technology, 97(11), 1296-1301. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2005.05.013
67. Chavan, S., Yadav, B., Tyagi, R.D. and Drogui, P. (2021). Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) biopolyesters production by thermophilic microbes using waste feedstocks: A review. Bioresource Technology, 341, 125900. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125900
68. Bhati, R. and Mallick, N. (2015). Carbon dioxide and poultry waste utilization for production of polyhydroxyalkanoate biopolymers by Nostoc muscorum Agardh: A sustainable approach. Journal of Applied Phycology, 28(1), 161-168. DOI: 10.1007/s10811-015-0573-x
69. Mallick, N., Gupta, S., Panda, B. and Sen, R. (2007). Process optimization for poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) co-polymer production by Nostoc muscorum. Biochemical Engineering Journal, 37(2), 125-130. DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2007.04.002
70. Nishioka, M., Nakai, K., Miyake, M., Asada, Y. and Taya, M. (2001). Production of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate by thermophilic cyanobacterium, Synechococcus sp. MA19, under phosphate-limited conditions. Biotechnology Letters, 23, 1095-1099. DOI: 10.1023/A:1010551614648
71. Dutt, V. and Srivastava, S. (2018). Novel quantitative insights into carbon sources for synthesis of polyhydroxybutyrate in Synechocystis PCC 6803. Photosynthesis Research, 136, 303-314. DOI: 10.1007/s11120-017-0464-x
72. Krasaesueb, N., Incharoensakdi, A. and Khetkorn, W. (2019). Utilization of shrimp wastewater for poly-β-hydroxybutyrate production by Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 strain ΔSphU cultivated in photobioreactor. Biotechnology Reports, 23, e00345. DOI: 10.1016/j.btre.2019.e00345
73. Spolaore, P., Joannis-Cassan, C., Duran, E. and Isambert, A. (2006). Commercial applications of microalgae. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 101(2), 87-96. DOI: 10.1263/jbb.101.87
74. Campbell, D., MacKinnon, R. and Bantle, J.A. (1982). Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate metabolism in blue-green algae. Journal of Bacteriology, 149(1), 384-389. DOI: 10.1128/jb.149.1.361-363.1982
75. De Philippis, R., Sili, C. and Vincenzini, M. (1992). Glycogen and poly-β-hydroxybutyrate synthesis in Spirulina maxima. Journal of General Microbiology, 138, 1623-1628. DOI:10.1099/00221287-138-8-1623
76. Sharma, N.K., Tiwari, S.P., Tripathi, K. and Rai, A.K. (2011). Sustainability and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae): Facts and challenges. Journal of Applied Phycology, 23, 1059-1081. DOI:10.1007/s10811-010-9626-3
77. Samantaray, S. and Mallick, N. (2012). Production and characterization of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) polymer from Aulosira fertilissima. Journal of Applied Phycology, 24,803-814. DOI: 10.1007/s10811-011-9699-7
78. Flores, E. and Herrero, A. (2010). Compartmentalized function through cell differentiation in filamentous cyanobacteria. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 8, 39-50. DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro2242
79. Lama, L., Nicolaus, B., Calandrelli, V., Manca, M.C., Romano, I. and Gambacorta, A. (1996). Effect of growth conditions on endo- and exopolymer biosynthesis in Anabaena cylindrica 10 C. Phytochemistry, 42, 655-659. DOI: 10.1016/0031-9422(95)00985-X
80. Banerjee, A., Sharma, R., Chisti, Y. and Banerjee, U.C. (2008). Botryococcus braunii: A renewable source of hydrocarbons and other chemicals. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, 28(4), 245-279. DOI: 10.1080/07388550290789513
81. Kavitha, G., Kurinjimalar, C., Sivakumar, K., Kaarthik, M., Aravind, R., Palani, P. and Rengasamy, R. (2016). Optimization of polyhydroxybutyrate production utilizing wastewater as nutrient source by Botryococcus braunii Kütz using response surface methodology. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 93, 534-542. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.09.019
82. Kavitha, G., Kurinjimalar, C., Sivakumar, K., Palani, P. and Rengasamy, R. (2016). Biosynthesis, purification and characterization of polyhydroxybutyrate from Botryococcus braunii kütz. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 89, 700-706. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.04.086
83. Grivalský, T., Lakatos, G.E., Štěrbová, K., Manoel, J.A.C., Beloša, R., Divoká, P., Kopp, J., Kriechbaum, R., Spadiut, O., Zwirzitz, A. and Trenzinger, K. (2024). Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate production by Synechocystis MT_a24 in a raceway pond using urban wastewater. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 108, 44. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-023-12924-3
84. Senatore, V., Rueda, E., Bellver, M., Díez-Montero, R., Ferrer, I., Zarra, T., Naddeo, V. and García, J. (2023). Production of phycobiliproteins, bioplastics and lipids by the cyanobacteria Synechocystis sp. treating secondary effluent in a biorefinery approach. Science of the Total Environment, 857, 159343. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159343
85. Cassuriaga, A.P.A., Moraes, L., Morais, M.G. and Costa, J.A.V. (2023). Use of exogenous substrate in Chlorella cultivation: Strategy for biomass and polyhydroxybutyrate production. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 231, 123193. DOI:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123193
86. Rueda, E., Altamira-Algarra, B. and García, J. (2022). Process optimization of the polyhydroxybutyrate production in the cyanobacteria Synechocystis sp. and Synechococcus sp. Bioresource Technology, 356, 127330. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2022.127330
87. Kumari, P., Kiran, B.R. and Mohan, S.V. (2022). Polyhydroxybutyrate production by Chlorella sorokiniana SVMIICT8 under Nutrient-deprived mixotrophy. Bioresource Technology, 354, 127135. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2022.127135
88. Rueda, E., Gonzalez-Flo, E., Roca, L., Carretero, J. and García, J. (2022). Accumulation of polyhydroxybutyrate in Synechocystis sp. isolated from wastewaters: Effect of salinity, light, and P content in the biomass. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 10, 107952. DOI:10.1016/j.jece.2022.107952
89. Gracioso, L.H. and Bellan, A. (2021). Light excess stimulates Poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate yield in a mangrove-isolated strain of Synechocystis sp. Bioresource Technology, 320, 124379. DOI:10.1016/j.biortech.2020.124379
90. Rueda, E. and García, J. (2021). Optimization of the phototrophic Cyanobacteria polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) production by kinetic model simulation. Science of the Total Environment, 800, 149561. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149561
91. Koch, M., Bruckmoser, J., Scholl, J., Hauf, W., Rieger, B. and Forchhammer, K. (2020). Maximizing PHB content in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803: A new metabolic engineering strategy based on the regulator PirC. Microbial Cell Factories, 19, 231. DOI: 10.1186/s12934-020-01491-1
92. Rueda, E., García-Galán, M.J., Díez-Montero, R., Vila, J., Grifoll, M. and García, J. (2020). Polyhydroxybutyrate and glycogen production in photobioreactors inoculated with wastewater borne cyanobacteria monocultures. Bioresource Technology, 295, 122233. DOI:10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122233
93. Nematollahi, M.A., Laird, D.W., Hughes, L.J., Raeisossadati, M. and Moheimani, N.R., (2020). Effect of organic carbon source and nutrient depletion on the simultaneous production of a high value bioplastic and a specialty pigment by Arthrospira platensis. Algal Research, 47, 101844. DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2020.101844
94. Abdo, S.M. and Ali, G.H. (2019). Analysis of polyhydroxybutrate and bioplastic production from microalgae. Bulletin of the National Research Centre, 43(1), 97. DOI:10.1186/s42269-019-0135-5
95. Nobakht Porshokouh, T., Norastehnia, A. and Moradi, F. (2019). Comparison of polyhydroxybutyrate content produced by Spirulina sp. under autotrophic, heterotrophic, and mixotrophic culture conditions. Journal of Aquatic Ecology, 9(1), 111-112. DOI:10.5897/AJMR2015.7530
96. Cassuriaga, A.P.A., Freitas, B.C.B., Morais, M.G. and Costa, J.A.V. (2018). Innovative polyhydroxybutyrate production by Chlorella fusca grown with pentoses. Bioresource Technology, 265, 456-463. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2018.06.026
97. Troschl, C., Meixner, K., Fritz, I., Leitner, K., Palacios Romero, A., Kovalcik, A., Sedlacek, P. and Drosg, B. (2018). Pilot-scale production of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate with the cyanobacterium Synechocytis sp. CCALA192 in a non-sterile tubular photobioreactor. Algal Research, 34, 116-125. DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2018.07.011
98. Kamravamanesh, D., Pflügl, S., Nischkauer, W., Limbeck, A., Lackner, M. and Herwig, C. (2017). Photosynthetic poly-β-hydroxybutyrate accumulation in unicellular cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6714. AMB Express, 7(1), 1-12. DOI: 10.1186/s13568-017-0443-9
99. Kovalcik, A., Kovalcik, A., Meixner, K., Mihalic, M., Zeilinger, W., Fritz, I., Fuchs, W., Kucharczyk, P., Stelzer, F. and Drosg, B. (2017). Characterization of polyhydroxyalkanoates produced by Synechocystis salina from digestate supernatant. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 102, 497-504. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.04.054
100. Ansari, S., and Fatma, T. (2016). Cyanobacterial Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB): Screening, Optimization and Characterization. PLoS ONE, 11(6), e0158168. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0158168
101. Kaewbai-ngam, A., Incharoensakdi, A., and Monshupanee, T. (2016). Increased accumulation of polyhydroxybutyrate in divergent cyanobacteria under nutrient-deprived photoautotrophy: An efficient conversion of solar energy and carbon dioxide to polyhydroxybutyrate by Calothrix scytonemicola TISTR 8095. Bioresource Technology, 212, 342-347. DOI:10.1016/j.biortech.2016.04.035
102. Meixner, K., Fritz, I., Daffert, C., Markl, K., Fuchs, W. and Drosg, B. (2016). Processing recommendations for using low-solids digestate as nutrient solution for poly-ß-hydroxybutyrate production with Synechocystis salina. Journal of Biotechnology, 240, 61-67. DOI:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2016.10.023
103. Hondo, S., Takahashi, M., Osanai, T., Matsuda, M., Hasunuma, T., Tazuke, A., Nakahira, Y., Chohnan, S., Hasegawa, M. and Asayama, M. (2015). Genetic engineering and metabolite profiling for overproduction of polyhydroxybutyrate in cyanobacteria. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 120(5), 510-517. DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2015.03.004
104. Monshupanee, T., and Incharoensakdi, A. (2014). Enhanced accumulation of glycogen, lipids and polyhydroxybutyrate under optimal nutrients and light intensities in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 116(4), 830-838. DOI:10.1111/jam.12409
105. Toh, P.S., Jau, M.H., Yew, S.P., Abed, R.M. and Sudesh, K. (2008). Comparison of Polyhydroxyalkanoates Biosynthesis, mobilization and the effects on cellular morphology in Spirulina platensis and Synechocystis sp. Uniwg. Journal of Bioscience, 19(2), 21-38.
106. Sharma, L., Singh, A.K., Panda, B. and Mallick, N. (2007). Process optimization for poly-β-hydroxybutyrate production in a nitrogen fixing cyanobacterium, Nostoc muscorum using response surface methodology. Bioresource Technology, 98(5), 987-993. DOI:10.1016/j.biortech.2006.04.016
107. Jau, M.H., Yew, S.P., Toh, P.S., Chong, A.S., Chu, W.L., Phang, S.M., Najimudin, N. and Sudesh, K. (2005). Biosynthesis and mobilization of poly (3-hydroxybutyrate) [P (3HB)] by Spirulina platensis. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 36(3), 144-151. DOI:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2005.05.002
108.Arora, Y., Sharma, S. and Sharma,ௗV. (2023). Microalgae in Bioplastic Production: A Comprehensive Review. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 48(6), 7225–7241. DOI:10.1007/s13369-023-07871-0
109.Brasil, B.S.A.F. and Garcia, L.C. (2016). Microalgas: alternativas promissoras para aindústria. Agroenergia em Revista, 10, 1-60.
110.Shams, M., Haji-Aghababa, A., Kardani-Esfahani, S.M. and Amini, N.G. (2017). Industrial Production of Microalgae Arthrospira (Spirulina) platensis in Central Iran. International Journal of Pure and Applied Bioscience, 5(4), 31-36. DOI: 10.18782/2320-7051.5389
111.Lababpour, A. (2021). Site selection for large-scale industrial cultivation of algae: A case study on the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the Oman Sea. Journal of Applied Research in Geographic Sciences, 17(47), 326-337. DOR: 20.1001.1.22287736.1396.17.47.3.5
112. Price, S., Kuzhiumparambil, U., Pernice, M. and Ralph, P. (2022). Techno-economic analysis of cyanobacterial PHB bioplastic production. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 10 (3).
113. Panuschka, S., Drosg, B., Ellersdorfer, M., Meixner, K. and Fritz, I. (2019). Photoautotrophic production of poly-hydroxybutyrate – First detailed cost estimations. Algal Res. 41, 101558.
114.Samantaray, S. and Mallick, N. (2014). Production of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) co-polymer by the diazotrophic cyanobacterium Aulosira fertilissima CCC 444. Journal of Applied Phycology, 26, 237-245. DOI: 10.1007/s10811-013-0073-9
115.Carpine, R., Olivieri, G., Hellingwerf, K.J., Pollio, A., Pinto, G. and Marzocchella, A. (2020). Photoautotrophic Production of Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) From Cyanobacteria: Nitrate Effects and Screening of Strains. Environmental Engineering and Management Journal, 18(6), 1337-1346.
116.Olabi, A.G., Shehata, N., Sayed, E.T., Rodriguez, C., Anyanwu, R.C., Russell, C. and Abdelkareem, M.A. (2023). Role of microalgae in achieving sustainable development goals and circular economy. Science of the Total Environment, 854, 158689. DOI:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158689
117. Kourmentza, C., Plácido, J., Venetsaneas, N., Burniol-Figols, A., Varrone, C., Gavala, H.N. and Reis, M.A.M. (2017). Recent advances and challenges towards sustainable polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) production. Bioengineering, 4(2), 55. DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering4020055
Journal of Urban Environmental Management
Volume 3, Issue 2 - Serial Number 10
Spring 2025
Pages 103-141

  • Receive Date 10 April 2025
  • Revise Date 08 July 2025
  • Accept Date 06 August 2025
  • First Publish Date 06 August 2025
  • Publish Date 22 June 2025

Home

Guide for Authors

Submit Manuscript

Reviewers

Contact Us